1. Choose from one of the topics covered in the Issues in Journalism lectures and seminars and conduct a literature review that will provide an overview of the subject. (c. 700 words)
This literature review will provide a brief overview of the concept of citizen journalism (1), and its perceived strengths and weaknesses (2). It will also discuss and make reference to some of the key citizen journalism studies done to date and provide a brief synopsis of some of their findings. An array of analogies will be used, where possible, to strengthen and/or contradict arguments expressed herein.
Hudson and Rowlands (2007) describe citizen journalists as ordinary people who witness extraordinary events and are empowered to send their video clips and pictures to various news outlets. This occurs when they are ‘‘in the wrong place at the right time’’ (Allan 2006, cited in Reich, 2008, p. 740). Although this view acknowledges the significant role played by citizen journalists as breaking stories unfold, it does not acknowledge the often mundane tasks completed by mainstream and citizen reporters alike, for example, court and council reporting. It attributes their coverage of breaking stories to sheer luck rather than journalistic ability and prowess. It should be noted that citizen journalists were among the first to report on the recent Japanese earthquake and tsunami. Similarly, after the September 11 attacks, citizen journalists immediately began publishing video footage, photos, and blogs, while the country’s main news organizations couldn’t cope with the level of user demand (Allan 2002, p. 119). Ordinary citizens turned to citizen journalism sites during the above crisis, while various mainstream news networks failed and/or malfunctioned when really tested-a view echoed by Allan (2002).
Hudson and Rowlands (2007) state that the rise of citizen journalism has coincided with the digital and new media revolution. Citizen journalists were also among the first to use social networking sites, such as Facebook and Twitter, as a way of spreading news. Tens of thousands of tweets, messages and statuses have made their way online in recent days, for example, tweets from survivors of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami/ messages about pro-Gaddafi forces bombing rebel strongholds. Some mainstream media quarters have acknowledged the role that citizen journalists play in relaying such news stories and in holding democratic institutions to account (McNair 2003). Institutions such as the BBC have introduced their own citizen journalism arena (iReport) based on Briggs’ notion (2010, p. 87) that: ‘‘no news organization can be everywhere, all the time. Readers can help provide the ‘‘what’’; journalists can then provide the ‘‘why’’’. Such examples point to a gradual shift in the way citizen journalism domains are being viewed by mainstream journalists and reporters.
Apart from mastering this new era of technology, citizen journalists have many strengths and weaknesses. Reich (2008, p. 740) carried out a study of Israeli citizen and mainstream news outlets to ‘‘shed light on...the daily conduct of ordinary citizens doubling as reporters’’. The results of his study suggest that citizen journalists are much more likely to base their stories on the actual witnessing of news events than their mainstream counterparts (Reich 2008, p. 739). This in itself provides mainstream journalists with a challenge, as the battle for unique access to unfolding news events and content takes centre stage, for example, a fresh or local angle/hook. Hence, it was no surprise to see both the BBC and Sky News provide citizen produced content (photographs and video footage) on air when the Japanese tsunami struck. A lack of resources on the ground meant an over-reliance on Japanese media sources and citizen reporters. Reich (2008, p. 749) also found that citizen reporters were almost twice as likely to use ‘‘text-mediated’’ (the Internet, email and documents) and ‘‘non-mediated content’’ (face-to-face interviews) than their mainstream counterparts. This has further implications for mainstream reporters: citizen reporters have greater access to fresh and/or unique sources and ordinary citizens (Gans 1979, cited in Reich, 2008, p. 743). With greater access to ordinary citizens, citizen reporters are readily informed about what issues are affecting their readers’ lives.
However, citizen journalists also have faults and weaknesses. Because the majority of them are ‘untrained’ amateurs- journalists, researchers, and academics are well within their rights to point to the ‘‘traditional skills of the journalist’’ (Hudson and Rowlands 2007, p. 4), when comparing and contrasting them with their mainstream counterparts. By emphasising the fact that citizen journalists lack the ability to ‘‘present what is truthful and relevant’’ (Hudson and Rowlands 2007, p. 4), the interests of professional journalists are put forward. This allows professional journalists to ward off (disseminate the threat posed by citizen journalists) who they may be competing with for jobs. Citizen journalists are said to be lacking in terms of ‘morals’, ‘ethics’, and their understanding of ‘legal issues’. While this may be true in some respects, it does not account for the rise in popularity of citizen journalism websites such as OhmyNews and The Bakersfield Voice (Briggs 2010, p. 88). It could also be argued that such a statement only serves to undermine and degrade the many contributions made by citizen journalists and publicise the differences between ‘us’ and ‘them’-professional journalists and amateur rookies (van Dijk 1995, p. 29). It has been noted by Harmon 2001b (cited in Allan 2002, p. 133), that the Internet can also act as a haven for false rumours and information. Given the fact that citizen journalists source a lot of their information from the net, they would do well to heed this warning (Reich 2008, p. 749).
In conclusion, this literature review has provided a brief overview of the concept of citizen journalism. Drawing on a wide range of sources, this review has described and analysed the strengths and weaknesses of citizen journalists and citizen journalism. If citizen journalism is to fulfil its future promise then it must capitalise on these strengths (having unique sources and access to live footage) and eradicate its weaknesses (over-reliance on the Internet as a news/background source and accuracy/ethical issues). If this occurs, there is no reason why citizen journalism cannot but continue to be successful long into the future.
Reference list
Allan, S. (2002) Reweaving the Internet: online news of September 11 in Zelizer, B. and Allan, S. (eds.) Journalism after September 11. London: Routledge, pp. 119-137.
Briggs, M. (2010) Journalism next: a practical guide to digital reporting and publishing. Washington: CQ Press.
Hudson, G. and Rowlands, S. (2007) The broadcast journalism handbook. Harlow: Pearson Education.
McNair, B. (2003) News and journalism in the UK. 4th ed. London: Routledge.
Reich, Z. (2008) How citizens create news stories: the ‘‘news access’’ problem reversed. Journalism Studies, Vol. 9(5), pp. 739-758.
Van Dijk, T. (1995) Discourse analysis as ideology analysis in Schaffer, C. and Wenden, A.L. (eds.) Language and peace. Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing, pp. 17-33.
2. Write a review of a journal article related to your chosen topic. (c. 300 words)
In his most recent study of citizen journalism, Reich (2008, p. 741) looks at how citizen journalists are restricted in reporting news stories by having limited access to senior sources and PR representatives. Using data gathered from interviews with Israeli mainstream and citizen reporters and websites, Reich was able to interpret and analyse the journalistic role played by citizen reporters, the challenges they face, and the strengths and weaknesses they must overcome to challenge the dominance of their mainstream counterparts.
The focus of his journal article was to answer five key research questions and to ‘‘shed light on...the daily conduct of ordinary citizens doubling as reporters’’ (Reich 2008, p. 743). His research aims were clearly stated, among them were to look at how citizen journalists:
• Interact with their sources-do they use more or less sources than mainstream reporters?
• Source their news-the role played by the Internet and new (one-off) sources.
His findings suggest that citizen journalists prefer less interaction with their sources and tend to source most of their information through the Internet and other text-mediated channels (nearly twice as much as mainstream journalists) (Reich 2008, p. 749). I found his article easy to read because it is clearly labelled and structured in terms of incorporating headings, for example, a methodology section and a findings section, and his data collection is shown and collaborated in the form of tables, which helps break up the heavy text and allows the reader to see vividly the differences between mainstream and citizen journalism.
The results of this comparative study were well presented and discussed. I did not expect to see a research finding suggest that citizen journalists are better at using their own initiative than mainstream reporters (Reich 2008, p. 751). However, one reason for this could be that citizen reporters have the option to work at their own pace, often with the intent of breaking into mainstream journalism or ‘making it big’. For this to happen, enthusiasm and vigour is required. Although his research study is among one of the first and finest comparative studies of citizen reporting and journalism, his article is not without weakness. I would have to question the conclusions he draws from the study. In particular, he suggests a number of stories that ‘‘citizen journalists are well-equipped to cover’’ (Reich, 2008, p. 751). I do not think that such a generalization can be made based on one study. I would argue that a number of research studies need to done worldwide before such a specific conclusion can be made. His study did not pinpoint or take into account cultural differences and work practices in Israel and abroad for example.
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