ERASMUS REPORT-University of the West of Scotland (Hamilton Campus)

Student Name: David Kelly

Year of Study: 4th

Host University Code: UK PAISLEY01

         

  Arrival

You can get cheap fares from Dublin to Glasgow Prestwick (Ryanair). Glasgow Prestwick also has a train station. Take the train from Glasgow Prestwick to Glasgow Central (no more than £3.50). Take another train from Glasgow Central to Hamilton West (£3.90 return). The university is approx. 5 mins (walk) away from the train station. Contact Nina Downs accommodation@uws.ac.uk  prior to arrival if you have booked university accommodation in advance (to get keys to your block/room). You may have to meet a security officer inside the Almada building to sign forms and get your keys-organize this prior to your departure. There was no orientation programme, but you can organize an information session with your course leader and/or lecturers.   

I didn’t know anyone on arrival (except my UL counterparts), but it didn’t take me long to make new friends-the locals/uws students are very friendly. The campus is located five minutes from the town centre and a short walk away from restaurants, newsagents, and other shops. The town centre has everything you need (a shopping centre, a cinema, pubs, a leisure complex, etc.)

  Accommodation

University accommodation was pre-arranged (needs to be booked) for us at the Halls of Residence, 2 Barrack Street, Hamilton (Postcode: ML3 0HZ).  Contact Nina Downs to book university accommodation well in advance (details are available online and/or from the university service). We shared a flat with five other students (two toilet facilities, two shower facilities, and a kitchen/living room area. Bedroom facilities include a sink and mirror, a study desk and chair, a wardrobe and bedding sheets, etc.  The cost per week was in the region of £70X18 weeks=£1260. It is good quality and affordable accommodation. However, additional costs may include purchasing a TV, cooking equipment, forks, plates, etc. (which was split between the six of us). The Halls of Residence is located two mins away from UWS and various shopping outlets (Asda and Spar).  However, the university accommodation service clamps down on parties and noise disturbances at halls (they have several security officers), as well as inviting friends to spend the night, etc. so if you have a hectic social life you might consider commuting from Glasgow. While there is nothing wrong with Hamilton town centre, you may find that there is much more going on in and around Glasgow (concerts, festivals, entertainment, etc.) You can purchase household items, clothes, and so on in the town centre at relatively cheap prices (so just bring the necessities). Hamilton is 25-30 minutes away from Glasgow Central (by train). A lot of students go on a night out in Glasgow as it has several popular nightclubs. Hamilton and Glasgow are safe places in general. However, things can turn nasty, especially after Celtic vs. Rangers (football games) so if you are out and about or supporting one of these teams-be careful and don’t go home alone (cover up your colors). Pubs and restaurants won’t allow you in if you are wearing football jerseys (unless they are a designated Celtic/Rangers pub for example). You can be hit with substantial cleaning/damage costs if you leave your accommodation in a poor state.

    Selection of Courses

I had planned to do a sociology module, but due to timetable restrictions this was not possible. I did not know how many modules I had to undertake prior to arrival (due to weighting/ECTS), but it later transpired that individual modules were worth 10 ECTS credits (needed to do three modules). I chose to do An Introduction to Broadcast Journalism (Year 2), Issues in Journalism (Year 1), and Sports and News Production (Year 3). I fully recommend these modules as I believe they are essential for any budding journalist in any field. Here is a brief sample (overview) of what we covered in each of these modules:

An Introduction to Broadcast Journalism:

·         How to source and write radio pieces and scripts, how to write news stories from press releases, how to record interviews inside and outside the radio studio (using the Burli system), interview techniques. Examination layout (coursework): A report on the similarities and differences of two news programmes (treatment of stories, style, etc.) Recording and editing interview clips/writing news reports on a topic of your choice.

                    Issues in Journalism:

·         A literature review (1000 words=30%) on one of the topics covered (news and celebrity, citizen journalism, politics, etc.)

·         A 2000 word essay discussing how a research proposal on this topic could be researched and executed (methodology, research questions, etc.) An accompanying PowerPoint presentation (10 mins) 70%.

Sports and News Production

·         Working in a TV studio, setting up a sports website, how to record a sports/news show.

·         (coursework): setting up and running a sports website of your choice (excl. soccer), putting together a sports package on an event of your choice (related to your website).

There is plenty of information available to help you choose what modules to study (prospectus guides can be delivered upon request, online information, and guidance from lecturers can prove very beneficial). Below are some of the contact details for journalism lecturers at UWS:

Ronnie Bergman (Broadcast Journalism lecturer) Ronnie.bergman@uws.ac.uk

Margaret Hughes (Issues in Journalism lecturer) Margaret.hughes@uws.ac.uk

Elizabeth McLaughlin (Sports and News Production lecturer) Elizabeth.Mclaughlin@uws.ac.uk

*Amanda Geary (Programme Leader) Amanda.geary@uws.ac.uk (our main contact in the journalism department).

Examinations tend to take place in/or around the end of April (throughout the term). I contacted student services (Almada building) prior to departure to organize obtaining a transcript of results (which can be posted to your home or home university). Their number is 01698 894448. However, some lecturers offer unofficial results when available (subject to the approval of the external examiner(s)), so a friendly email may give you an idea of your overall grade.

   The UWS grading scheme (respective bands): A 70-100, B1 60-69, B2 50-59, C 40-49, D 30-39, E 0-29.

  Integration

There was no orientation session available at UWS. However, UWS students are incredibly friendly (they hosted a welcome party in our flat on arrival!!!) You will have no problems making new friends. The student union hosts several weekly events, be it football or fancy dress. Lecturers will introduce you to the class and conversations and friendships strike up from there. My only advice would be to join a sports club and/or society. I joined the cricket club (having never played the game before in my life). I made great friends through the club and even managed to win a game (scoring four runs). Just get out there and have fun-Do what you want to do! If you have any problems contact any member of staff. They are really helpful and will listen in a non-judgmental manner. One of my lecturers gave me extra time to finish an assignment because I was under pressure with other demands. It took me a few days to get used to the Glaswegian accent (vice versa), but you won’t have any difficulties with the language.

         Registration Procedures

(a)   Local or national authorities

I brought my birth cert and passport (four id photos) just in case I needed to register with the national authorities, a football team, or open up a bank a/c. You will need id to gain entry to certain events, buy alcohol, avail of student discounts, etc. so it is essential to have at least one or two forms.

(b)   Registration with the university

You will be able to register with UWS once your application has been fully processed (within one or two weeks). You will need to fill in some forms at student services and check regularly to see if you application has been approved. Then you will be photographed and given a student id card (needed to withdraw books from the library, access computers, etc.) at no extra cost. 

  Academic Differences

Class size varies from module to module (under 10 (Sports and News Production) to over 40 (Issues in Journalism). Lecturers and other members of staff are very approachable (students can, and are encouraged to schedule appointments, send queries via email, etc. without feeling inferior or being hesitant. We had three hours of class time per module p/w (max). For Issues in Journalism we were afforded with 140 hours throughout the course of term to spend completing assignments and studying, researching, etc. Access to library computers can be a problem as demand tends to exceed supply. However, the Creative Industry (block 7) has its own set of computers for journalism students (access to the net and InDesign, etc.) The Halls of Residence has its own internet network, so this can be a valid resource and investment for students. Laptops have to be configured before they can gain entry to this network (go to the ICT dept. on the 2^nd floor). However, the library still boasts an impressive collection of journalism guides and books (just not on the same level as UL). Don’t forget you can still access journals through the UL network and UWS’ Blackboard portal.

    Student Clubs

UWS boasts an array of vibrant clubs and societies: http://www.sauws.org.uk/Sports and http://www.uws.ac.uk/about/facilities/student-unions.asp .I would recommend joining the American Football, Cricket, or Football teams. Alastair Adamson is the main contact for American Football. Ryan Wood is player/manager for the UWS Cricket team. I made great friends through my involvement with the cricket side (even though I never played the game before!!!) You may also get the chance to travel to Edinburgh and further afield so give it a go. However, please note that not all UWS’ sports clubs are located in Hamilton (they may be located in Paisley), so this might impact on your ability to travel to training, matches, etc. (usually you can carpool and/or get the train).

 

  Town

I would recommend going on a tour of the Scottish Highlands:     http://www.highlandexperience.com/tours/glasgow/Loch-ness-tour-scottish-highlands.htm . You will get to see the beautiful Scottish landscape (lakes, mountains, etc.) and the surrounding areas (Glen Coe, Stirling, and Inverness). It is a must for anyone interested in history (culture) and nature. Hamilton has a cinema, football team, various pubs and nightclubs: http://new.myvue.com/latest-movies/cinema/hamilton

http://www.acciesfc.co.uk/ (the football stadium (New Douglas Park) is five mins away from university accommodation (The Hamilton Halls of Residence)

http://www.celticfc.net/ (Celtic Park can be reached by getting the train to Dalmarnock and walking for 10 mins. CP has a terrific match atmosphere, esp. vs. Rangers. A stadium tour of CP is a must for any hoops fan)

The Bay Horse pub is two mins away from uni (a friendly atmosphere coupled with great food and staff, show most sports events (soccer, rugby, etc.)

  Transport

The quickest way of getting around Glasgow is to use the train (see http://www.scotrail.co.uk/ for a list of relevant timetables, to purchase tickets, etc.) Tickets are relatively cheap (£3.90 for a return ticket from Hamilton West to Glasgow Central). Tickets can be purchased online, at the train station, or even onboard. Most trains in and out of Glasgow run every 15 mins or so. Taxis can be expensive so it’s best to carpool or share a taxi with mates if possible (establish a set price with the driver beforehand). http://www.citylink.co.uk/index.php (using the Scottish bus network is another cheap way of traveling in and around the city, with student discounts if you register online). Purchasing an all-day ticket is usually the best option if you are planning a day away (outside of) from Hamilton.

 

  Cost of Living

http://www.talentscotland.com/workers/live-and-work/money-and-banking/cost-of-living.aspx

http://www.ed.ac.uk/studying/international/finance/cost-of-living (both have good cost of living guides and general information about studying in Scotland).The latter puts the general cost of living per week (university self-catering room) at £68 (excluding rent). Accommodation at halls was £70 p/w. £30 p/w would be enough for shopping at Asda, Iceland, etc. The biggest cost outside of accommodation is entertainment/enjoyment. I’d say I spent £50-60 once a month going to Celtic games. Don’t forget to claim your grant (return your UL forms in time). This helps reduce the financial burden on your parents, guardian(s), yourself. Shopping at Asda can save you a small fortune (usually have some super offers, as do nightclubs, Vodafone outlets, etc.)

 

  Hints & Tips

Hamilton town centre has a Vodafone outlet (we got a sim card for £5 and 100 mins of international calls per month for an extra £10 if I recall). Bring football boots, shorts, socks, runners, etc. (just in case you want to join a sports club). Travel in and around Scotland, don’t just limit yourself to Hamilton and Glasgow (Paisley, Stirling, and Inverness are historical gems so organize a tour with your mates at the weekend). A stadium tour of Celtic Park/Hampden Park is a must for any football fan, as are match days. Whatever your interests Scotland has something to offer. If you want to play Gaelic Football (join the Glaschu (Glasgow) Gaels) for guaranteed craic agus ceol.

           

            Language

            It might take you a few days to get used to the Glaswegian accent, but you shouldn’t have any major problems. Lectures and lecturers follow the same routine/layout as UL (also as regards continuous assessment). You are usually required to write essays, give presentations, etc. The only variation being that UWS has its own referencing system (Harvard system) which is slightly different to the Harvard system used here in UL.

***Thanks to UL student Kieran Foley for use of the photos***

Citizen journalism (research project)

In a 2,000 word essay discuss how you would undertake a research project on one of the topics studied in this module. Your essay should identify a research question and discuss the range of research methodologies and evaluate the most appropriate method for your report.

***Picture courtesy of: http://www.google.ie/imgres?q=research+project&hl=en&gbv=2&tbm=isch&tbnid=p2JORVsIk_0g0M:&imgrefurl=http://www.ehow.com/how_8273095_develop-proposal-undergraduate-research-project.html&docid=0NcJ2tVQ10PaHM&w=225&h=220&ei=ZcmATu3rDIfs-gaF44WSDQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=653&vpy=347&dur=9906&hovh=176&hovw=180&tx=114&ty=96&page=6&tbnh=169&tbnw=165&start=110&ndsp=23&ved=1t:429,r:7,s:110&biw=1280&bih=929***

This qualitative study will examine how citizen and mainstream journalists research and generate news items from within a newsroom setting. It will also help to determine whether members of the public and professional journalists have the ability to differentiate between content produced by citizen or ‘ordinary’ people and that of ‘expert’ journalists. In doing so, factors considered to characterize citizen and mainstream journalists, and most importantly their work(s), may come to the forefront. The presence of comment, lack of sources, and a limited understanding of legal and moral issues have so often been used to define citizen journalism, and negate why mainstream journalism must triumph over what is largely seen and referred to in current literature as a counterproductive and invalid representation of true and pure journalism. This traditionalist view is echoed by Hudson and Rowlands (2007, p. 5), who suggest that “the technology of story-telling should not be confused with the art of story-telling”. This research project will explore how citizen journalists and their mainstream counterparts formulate news reports (the processes involved), and identify some of the strengths and weaknesses of an ever-expanding citizen journalism arena, as identified by members of the public and professional journalists themselves-thus allowing beneficial observations for training practices and so forth to be made.

        Using a variation of the “news writing exercise”, as outlined by Philo 1990 (cited in Devereux, 2007, p. 127), this study will compare and contrast how citizen and mainstream journalists research, source, edit, and write news reports based on a series of photographs from international media organizations. Data were collected from group interviews and focus groups, as well as through non-participant observation of the exercise itself. Six groups were used in the news production exercise (three groups of four, which included; members of the public and non-professional journalists-groups A, B, and C, collectively known as the citizen journalist sample), and another three group sample-D, E, and F, collectively known as the mainstream journalist sample (made up of working journalists from local radio, TV, and print (newspaper and magazine) organizations/outlets). After completing this exercise, the groups were asked a set of questions about the news reports they researched and produced; their primary/main sources of information, the presence of comment and/or fact, why they chose to challenge/retain the dominant discourse(s), different angles on the same story, and so forth. This study took place at the University of Limerick, Ireland. This location was chosen because it contains a fully furnished newsroom (telephones, computers, and recording equipment), and because of ease of access to target samples, members of the public and working journalists.

        This essay will briefly introduce citizen journalism commentary, previous studies and so forth (reflecting current literature). It will then address the research aims of this project, detailing in particular the research questions and a range of qualitative methods that have been used/that could have been used. Reasons why they were/were not used will also be provided. The accompanying research presentation will discuss the main steps involved in following a research process as featured/headlined herein; choosing a research topic, reviewing current literature on your chosen research topic, determining your research question(s) and choosing a research strategy.

Introduction

Hudson and Rowlands (2007, p. 545) define citizen journalists as “members of the public who send in pictures from their mobile phones or video recorders of a news event they’ve witnessed, or who contribute news content to internet sites”. However, this narrow definition does not take into account one of the most contentious issues in citizen journalism studies-access to sources and materials (archives, press releases, phone calls updating journalists on events, and so on). Also, it does not explain the rise in popularity of citizen journalism websites such as OhmyNews and The Bakersfield Voice, that are run in a professional manner like those operated by mainstream journalists (Briggs 2010, p. 88).

        Reich (2008, p. 740) carried out a study of Israeli citizen and mainstream websites to identify barriers that hinder the progress of citizen journalists. The results of his study suggest that the main obstacle to citizen journalists is limited access to senior sources. He argues that “since citizen news outlets are fledging, unconventional organizations, possessing limited exposure, revenue, and public prestige, potential news sources are not inclined to perceive them as a forum in which they would like to appear” (Reich 2008, p. 741). This has greater implications for citizen journalists, as it means they must rely more and more on junior (often more inadequate or ordinary) sources. In turn, this opens the door for a wave of criticism from professional journalists who see the chance to put forward their own views and interests.

        By undermining citizen journalists, mainstream reporters are able to publicise the differences between ‘us’ and ‘them’ (van Dijk 1995, p. 29), that is, the differences between professional journalists and amateur rookies, those working for the public as opposed to those working for themselves, those who are trained and have qualifications, and those who are chancing their arms. This research project will not give weight to these views, although it would make for good commentary.

        The growth of social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter, and the presence of online blogs means that information is being disseminated (potentially) to millions of readers or viewers around the globe. Some have embraced this advance, others remain sceptical. The aim of this research project is to analyse how citizen and mainstream journalists generate news reports given the same resources. This study will also examine whether ordinary citizens and professional journalists can differentiate between the two samples (citizen and professional journalists). Central to this will be what each sample uses to characterize the above groups. Will they look for grammar mistakes, instances of bias, use of sources, will they be proved wrong? The results of this study will help citizen journalists and their mainstream colleagues to build on their strengths and eradicate their weaknesses through training programmes. Analysis may show whether these two groups are capable of working in tandem. These issues will now be reflected in the research questions that follow.

Research Questions

RQ1: What are the main processes that citizen and professional journalists go through in order to research, source, edit and write news reports within the same working environment?

Reich (2008, p. 748) found that “the relations between citizen reporters and their sources are far less established than those of their colleagues in the mainstream press”. As a result, this impacts on the ability of citizen reporters to interact with high rank sources (often gained over a long period of time through trust and mutual respect), and also means that they must build relationships from scratch with their sources (Ibid.). This study will attempt to shed light on:

·         the sources used by citizen and mainstream (professional) journalists, whether they are primary, secondary, or a mixture of both. Given the same resources (access) to telephones, the Internet, recording equipment, email, documents, and so forth-will citizen journalists attempt to contact senior sources? Will they make greater use of information on the Internet (archives and press releases), and how will they verify fact from fiction?

·         the similarities and differences between news reports from samples A, B, and C (citizen journalists) and D, E, and F (professional journalists). Why they chose to write the news report in a certain style, the language/sources used, did they bring forward their own views, and was this present in their coverage?

RQ2: Can members of the public (potential citizen journalists themselves) and professional journalists differentiate between news reports produced by citizen and mainstream journalists, and, if so, what aspects of news reporting do they rely on to explain these perceived differences?

Tapsall and Varley (2001, p. 4) argue that members of the public must understand the societal role played by journalists in order to distinguish between news content that is well or poorly produced. This study will attempt to identify the strengths and weaknesses of citizen and mainstream journalism, as told (evidenced) through the eyes of its viewers and producers. Set out and discussed below are a range of qualitative research methods this study could have opted for. The pros and/or cons of these methods will now be briefly analysed, before an evaluation of the methods chosen will be made. This section will also include references to current research literature, thus reflecting the commentary (literature review) component of the research process.

Methodology

Quantitative research: “the purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. These procedures have been developed in order to increase the likelihood that the information gathered will be relevant to the question asked and will be reliable and unbiased” (Selltiz et al. 1965, cited in Davies, 2007, p. 9).

On the other hand, qualitative research aims “to reflect upon the feelings and experiences relative to the research question, to explore the nature of the relationship between person and situation, and to take account of the effect of the research analyst’s own background and role” (Davies 2007, p. 26).

To reiterate, the aims of this study were to reflect/shed light on the main processes that citizen and professional journalists go through in order to research, source, edit and write news reports within the same working environment. This study needed to take the experiences of citizen journalists, members of the public, and professional journalists (purposive samples) into account to document any findings in a fair and transparent manner. Attention had to be drawn to/and reflect the different backgrounds of participants (to mirror the notion that citizen journalists can and do come from all walks of life and cultures, and the makeup of mainstream journalism itself). This study required responses from members of the public and professional journalists, to see if they could differentiate between content produced by citizen and mainstream journalists, and also, what they used/looked for to guide their decision-making process. Therefore, the exploratory emphasis of qualitative research/data (Davies 2007, p. 35) formed the basis of this research project. Davies (2007, p. 139) also argues that the nature of qualitative research is less arduous than that of quantitative research: “there is a seductive appeal about being able to ‘get involved’ in face-to-face encounters as quickly as possible”. Successfully implementing qualitative research methods allows “to some extent the interviewee can direct the flow of conversation, so avoiding the risk that the researcher’s own background sets the agenda in an autocratic way” (Ibid., p. 140). This means that expansive observations and greater analysis of the subject area can be made in an objective manner, and without the interference of the interviewer/observer, thus ensuring the research is well accredited.

A range (selection) of qualitative research methods that could have been used/that were used in this research project, and justification for their inclusion/exclusion.

Reconstruction interviews and case studies could have been used in this study as primary modes of research. According to Reich (2005, 2006, forthcoming), reconstruction interviews have “proven to be an effective and reliable tool for systematically studying the actual performance of journalists, as it provides the researcher with access to even the most sensitive news processes”. However, while reconstruction interviews would give a unique insight into how citizen and mainstream journalists create news, it would also be a time consuming research method. It would take far too long to interview 24 individuals (citizen/mainstream journalists) who undertook our study through involvement in a variation of Philo’s 1990 (cited in Devereux, 2007, p. 127) “news game exercise” (explained below), and transcribe their opinions, views, and so forth-never mind the responses of members of the public and mainstream journalists to this process. Furthermore; this study is not measuring the performance of citizen and mainstream reporters, but rather identifying and analyzing the processes and procedures undertaken to research, source, edit, and write news reports. Nevertheless, interviews will play their part in this research study. Group interviews within focus groups will allow our purposive samples (citizen and mainstream journalists) the chance to demonstrate their knowledge of the news-making process and discuss why they wrote their news reports in a certain way, who they interviewed, sources used, and so on. This method will aid discussion among the sample groups (interviewees) while allowing the interviewer the option to explore important aspects of the research question (primary research/quoted sources used by citizen/mainstream journalists, structure of news reports (inverted pyramid), etc.

        This method will also help to show what “members had taken from television and to trace actual influences on beliefs and attitudes” (Philo 1990, cited in Devereux, 2007, p. 127). This may be beneficial because it will demonstrate whether citizen journalists simply copied and/or replicated what they had read, heard or viewed prior to the exercise or whether they used established knowledge of the inverted pyramid/other knowledge/experience to inform their decision-making.

        Case studies could have also been used in this project. They allow researchers the chance to “investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions, and their relationships” (Zainal 2007, p. 2). Case studies could help to create a detailed picture of how citizen and mainstream journalists research, source, edit and write news reports. They would have allowed the researcher access to participants in their natural setting, going beyond the staged setting (limitation) of this study. However, as outlined by Zainal (2007, p. 2), this project would not be able to draw any reliable conclusions and/or findings from a single comparative study of a citizen and mainstream journalist. Although this method helps “to explain the complexities of real-life situations which may not be captured through experimental or survey research” (Ibid., p. 4), it too is seen as being rather time consuming and a forum for the expression and manipulation of biased views and evidence (Yin 1984, cited in Zainal 2007, p. 5). Hence, it will not be used as a research method in this project.

        In conjunction with group interviews within focus groups, non-participant observation was also used as a research method. This involved the researcher remaining “outside the focus of the study…and record[ing] activities, verbal and non-verbal interactions and consequential happenings” (Davies 2007, p. 30). This is beneficial because the researcher can record and/or note important non-verbal cues (body language, signs, and so on) that otherwise could go unnoticed. Non-participant observation also ensures that researcher interference is kept to a minimum. However, in order to collect relevant data, video-recording will be used. Participants have been made aware of this, and they have every right to cease involvement at any stage.                                                             

        Finally, the news game exercise will be employed as a research method in its own right. This exercise, as developed by Greg Philo and the Glasgow University Media Group in the early 1980’s, involves using a set of photographs as a writing stimulus and examining the content produced by relevant groups (samples), that is, the reasons why they wrote the news report in a certain style and so forth (Philo 1990, cited in Devereux, 2007, p. 127). One main advantage of using this exercise is that it can “operate either as a projective test (i.e. reproducing the beliefs of group members) or as a re-enactment test (i.e. representing what they believed the… account would be)” (Ibid.). This means that our study could be run on two fronts/different levels; individually and within groups. This would allow for a comparison of findings and results, outlining the role played by group dynamics/working individually within a journalism setting (editorial meetings, working with a partner, working alone, and so forth)-enhancing even further our understanding of the citizen journalism/mainstream journalism arenas.

Conclusion

This essay has discussed how a research project on citizen journalism would be undertaken. A research proposal was chosen, literature reviewed, research questions analyzed and a strategy decided upon. The pros and/or cons of various qualitative research methods were then identified and discussed. A range of resources were used to research this essay and to give weight to opinions expressed herein.

Reference list

Briggs, M. (2010) Journalism next: a practical guide to digital reporting and publishing. Washington: CQ Press.

Davies, M. B. (2007) Doing a successful research project: using qualitative or quantitative methods. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Devereux, E. (2007) Media studies: key issues and debates. London: Sage Publications.

Hudson, G. and Rowlands, S. (2007) The broadcast journalism handbook. Harlow: Pearson Education.  

Reich, Z. (2008) How citizens create news stories: the ‘‘news access’’ problem reversed. Journalism Studies, Vol. 9(5), pp. 739-758.

Tapsall, S. and Varley, C. (2001) What is a Journalist? in Tapsall, S. and Varley, C. (eds.) Journalism: theory in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3-21.  

Van Dijk, T. (1995) Discourse analysis as ideology analysis in Schaffer, C. and Wenden, A. L. (eds.) Language and peace. Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing, pp. 17-33.

Zainal, Z. (2007) Case study as a research method. Jurnal Kemanusiaan, Vol. 9 (Jun), pp. 1-6.

Issues in Journalism (Citizen Journalism)

Picture courtesy of: http://www.google.ie/imgres?q=citizen+journalism&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&tbm=isch&tbnid=XMZsxtLRjI5vXM:&imgrefurl=http://www.inwent-iij-lab.org/projects/2010/wordpress/2010/a-new-trend-called-citizen-journalism/citizen-journalism/&docid=HNPjAOZzTVhV-M&w=500&h=374&ei=Xp2ATp7OC8mg-wauh_yRDQ&zoom=1&biw=1024&bih=566&iact=rc&dur=375&page=1&tbnh=114&tbnw=146&start=0&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:0&tx=94&ty=77

1. Choose from one of the topics covered in the Issues in Journalism lectures and seminars and conduct a literature review that will provide an overview of the subject. (c. 700 words)

This literature review will provide a brief overview of the concept of citizen journalism (1), and its perceived strengths and weaknesses (2). It will also discuss and make reference to some of the key citizen journalism studies done to date and provide a brief synopsis of some of their findings. An array of analogies will be used, where possible, to strengthen and/or contradict arguments expressed herein.

Hudson and Rowlands (2007) describe citizen journalists as ordinary people who witness extraordinary events and are empowered to send their video clips and pictures to various news outlets. This occurs when they are ‘‘in the wrong place at the right time’’ (Allan 2006, cited in Reich, 2008, p. 740). Although this view acknowledges the significant role played by citizen journalists as breaking stories unfold, it does not acknowledge the often mundane tasks completed by mainstream and citizen reporters alike, for example, court and council reporting. It attributes their coverage of breaking stories to sheer luck rather than journalistic ability and prowess. It should be noted that citizen journalists were among the first to report on the recent Japanese earthquake and tsunami. Similarly, after the September 11 attacks, citizen journalists immediately began publishing video footage, photos, and blogs, while the country’s main news organizations couldn’t cope with the level of user demand (Allan 2002, p. 119). Ordinary citizens turned to citizen journalism sites during the above crisis, while various mainstream news networks failed and/or malfunctioned when really tested-a view echoed by Allan (2002).

Hudson and Rowlands (2007) state that the rise of citizen journalism has coincided with the digital and new media revolution. Citizen journalists were also among the first to use social networking sites, such as Facebook and Twitter, as a way of spreading news. Tens of thousands of tweets, messages and statuses have made their way online in recent days, for example, tweets from survivors of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami/ messages about pro-Gaddafi forces bombing rebel strongholds. Some mainstream media quarters have acknowledged the role that citizen journalists play in relaying such news stories and in holding democratic institutions to account (McNair 2003). Institutions such as the BBC have introduced their own citizen journalism arena (iReport) based on Briggs’ notion (2010, p. 87) that: ‘‘no news organization can be everywhere, all the time. Readers can help provide the ‘‘what’’; journalists can then provide the ‘‘why’’’. Such examples point to a gradual shift in the way citizen journalism domains are being viewed by mainstream journalists and reporters.

Apart from mastering this new era of technology, citizen journalists have many strengths and weaknesses. Reich (2008, p. 740) carried out a study of Israeli citizen and mainstream news outlets to ‘‘shed light on...the daily conduct of ordinary citizens doubling as reporters’’. The results of his study suggest that citizen journalists are much more likely to base their stories on the actual witnessing of news events than their mainstream counterparts (Reich 2008, p. 739). This in itself provides mainstream journalists with a challenge, as the battle for unique access to unfolding news events and content takes centre stage, for example, a fresh or local angle/hook. Hence, it was no surprise to see both the BBC and Sky News provide citizen produced content (photographs and video footage) on air when the Japanese tsunami struck. A lack of resources on the ground meant an over-reliance on Japanese media sources and citizen reporters. Reich (2008, p. 749) also found that citizen reporters were almost twice as likely to use ‘‘text-mediated’’ (the Internet, email and documents) and ‘‘non-mediated content’’ (face-to-face interviews) than their mainstream counterparts. This has further implications for mainstream reporters: citizen reporters have greater access to fresh and/or unique sources and ordinary citizens (Gans 1979, cited in Reich, 2008, p. 743). With greater access to ordinary citizens, citizen reporters are readily informed about what issues are affecting their readers’ lives.

However, citizen journalists also have faults and weaknesses. Because the majority of them are ‘untrained’ amateurs- journalists, researchers, and academics are well within their rights to point to the ‘‘traditional skills of the journalist’’ (Hudson and Rowlands 2007, p. 4), when comparing and contrasting them with their mainstream counterparts. By emphasising the fact that citizen journalists lack the ability to ‘‘present what is truthful and relevant’’ (Hudson and Rowlands 2007, p. 4), the interests of professional journalists are put forward. This allows professional journalists to ward off (disseminate the threat posed by citizen journalists) who they may be competing with for jobs. Citizen journalists are said to be lacking in terms of ‘morals’, ‘ethics’, and their understanding of ‘legal issues’. While this may be true in some respects, it does not account for the rise in popularity of citizen journalism websites such as OhmyNews and The Bakersfield Voice (Briggs 2010, p. 88). It could also be argued that such a statement only serves to undermine and degrade the many contributions made by citizen journalists and publicise the differences between ‘us’ and ‘them’-professional journalists and amateur rookies (van Dijk 1995, p. 29). It has been noted by Harmon 2001b (cited in Allan 2002, p. 133), that the Internet can also act as a haven for false rumours and information. Given the fact that citizen journalists source a lot of their information from the net, they would do well to heed this warning (Reich 2008, p. 749).

In conclusion, this literature review has provided a brief overview of the concept of citizen journalism. Drawing on a wide range of sources, this review has described and analysed the strengths and weaknesses of citizen journalists and citizen journalism. If citizen journalism is to fulfil its future promise then it must capitalise on these strengths (having unique sources and access to live footage) and eradicate its weaknesses (over-reliance on the Internet as a news/background source and accuracy/ethical issues). If this occurs, there is no reason why citizen journalism cannot but continue to be successful long into the future.


Reference list

Allan, S. (2002) Reweaving the Internet: online news of September 11 in Zelizer, B. and Allan, S. (eds.) Journalism after September 11. London: Routledge, pp. 119-137.

Briggs, M. (2010) Journalism next: a practical guide to digital reporting and publishing. Washington: CQ Press.

Hudson, G. and Rowlands, S. (2007) The broadcast journalism handbook. Harlow: Pearson Education.

McNair, B. (2003) News and journalism in the UK. 4th ed. London: Routledge.

Reich, Z. (2008) How citizens create news stories: the ‘‘news access’’ problem reversed. Journalism Studies, Vol. 9(5), pp. 739-758.

Van Dijk, T. (1995) Discourse analysis as ideology analysis in Schaffer, C. and Wenden, A.L. (eds.) Language and peace. Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing, pp. 17-33.


2. Write a review of a journal article related to your chosen topic. (c. 300 words)

In his most recent study of citizen journalism, Reich (2008, p. 741) looks at how citizen journalists are restricted in reporting news stories by having limited access to senior sources and PR representatives. Using data gathered from interviews with Israeli mainstream and citizen reporters and websites, Reich was able to interpret and analyse the journalistic role played by citizen reporters, the challenges they face, and the strengths and weaknesses they must overcome to challenge the dominance of their mainstream counterparts.

The focus of his journal article was to answer five key research questions and to ‘‘shed light on...the daily conduct of ordinary citizens doubling as reporters’’ (Reich 2008, p. 743). His research aims were clearly stated, among them were to look at how citizen journalists:

• Interact with their sources-do they use more or less sources than mainstream reporters?

• Source their news-the role played by the Internet and new (one-off) sources.

His findings suggest that citizen journalists prefer less interaction with their sources and tend to source most of their information through the Internet and other text-mediated channels (nearly twice as much as mainstream journalists) (Reich 2008, p. 749). I found his article easy to read because it is clearly labelled and structured in terms of incorporating headings, for example, a methodology section and a findings section, and his data collection is shown and collaborated in the form of tables, which helps break up the heavy text and allows the reader to see vividly the differences between mainstream and citizen journalism.

The results of this comparative study were well presented and discussed. I did not expect to see a research finding suggest that citizen journalists are better at using their own initiative than mainstream reporters (Reich 2008, p. 751). However, one reason for this could be that citizen reporters have the option to work at their own pace, often with the intent of breaking into mainstream journalism or ‘making it big’. For this to happen, enthusiasm and vigour is required. Although his research study is among one of the first and finest comparative studies of citizen reporting and journalism, his article is not without weakness. I would have to question the conclusions he draws from the study. In particular, he suggests a number of stories that ‘‘citizen journalists are well-equipped to cover’’ (Reich, 2008, p. 751). I do not think that such a generalization can be made based on one study. I would argue that a number of research studies need to done worldwide before such a specific conclusion can be made. His study did not pinpoint or take into account cultural differences and work practices in Israel and abroad for example.